The Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople

Background

Despite its condemnation at Nicaea, Arianism persisted and even flourished in parts of the Eastern Roman Empire, particularly under emperors sympathetic to Arian views. For example, Emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) actively supported Arian bishops and clergy, allowing Arianism to maintain a significant foothold. Various Arian factions, such as the Eunomians (extreme Arians who taught that the Son was entirely unlike the Father) and the Semi-Arians (who sought a middle ground, using terms like homoiousios, "of similar substance"), kept the controversy alive.

The Nicene Creed did not explicitly address the nature of the Holy Spirit. While it affirmed the divinity of the Son, it left room for debate about the status of the Holy Spirit, leading to the rise of heresies like Macedonianism (also called Pneumatomachianism), which denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit. These gaps in theological clarity created a need for a more comprehensive articulation of Trinitarian doctrine.

The Church was divided into factions, with different regions supporting different theological views. Some bishops supported Nicene orthodoxy, others favored Semi-Arianism, and still others adhered to extreme Arian or Pneumatomachian positions. This fragmentation weakened the unity of the Church and made it difficult to uphold consistent doctrine.

In 381 AD, Emperor Theodosius I became a strong supporter of Nicene Christianity and sought to restore doctrinal unity within the empire. He called the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople to reaffirm and expand the Nicene faith and to suppress the influence of heretical groups. This provided the Church with an opportunity to address unresolved theological and ecclesiastical disputes. This council wasn’t considered ecumenical at first, but was declared to be ecumenical by the third ecumenical council.

 Maximus the Cynic (also known as Maximus of Constantinople) was a controversial figure from Alexandria. He was trained as a philosopher and earned the nickname "the Cynic" because of his association with Cynic philosophy, a school known for its ascetic lifestyle and disdain for social norms. Maximus gained a reputation as a zealous opponent of Arianism, which likely helped him gain support among orthodox Christians. He positioned himself as an ally of Athanasius, the revered bishop of Alexandria who was a leading anti-Arian figure. This association helped him establish connections within the Church and eventually led him to Constantinople, where he hoped to gain more influence.

After the death of Bishop Paul I of Constantinople in 350 AD, Gregory of Nazianzus was appointed to the see. While Gregory was respected for his theological insight and commitment to orthodoxy, he was unpopular among some factions, particularly due to his association with Cappadocian clergy. Seeing an opportunity, Maximus - with the support of some Egyptian clergy - staged an unauthorized ordination to claim the bishopric of Constantinople. This ordination was carried out secretly at night, which undermined its legitimacy. When the situation became known, it sparked outrage among local clergy and laity. Gregory of Nazianzus and others quickly denounced Maximus’s ordination as illegitimate. The local clergy and people of Constantinople rejected Maximus’s claim to the bishopric, refusing to recognize his authority. Gregory appealed to the Emperor Theodosius I, who upheld Gregory’s position and dismissed Maximus’s claims.

Gregory of Nazianzus himself was ambivalent about his position in Constantinople, feeling alienated and frustrated by the politics of the city. This contributed to his lack of popularity; he was seen as a reluctant bishop who openly expressed his weariness and dissatisfaction with the ecclesiastical environment of the capital.

The Council

The Second Ecumenical Council was convened in May, 381 AD. Meletius of Antioch chaired the council initially.  150 bishops attended, all from the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. The council is often referred to as an "Eastern council" because no Western bishops were present. The Western Church later accepted its decisions, but it was largely a gathering of bishops from the East. The council's purpose was to suppress Arianism, so most Arian-leaning bishops had either been removed from their sees or refused to accept the Nicene faith and were excluded. Notable attendees included:

Meletius of Antioch, the initial president of the council; he died early during the proceedings.

Gregory of Nazianzus, who was Bishop of Constantinople at the time was appointed president after Meletius's death. He was disgusted at the political and theological fighting that took place and resigned both as chairman and bishop during the council.

Nectarius of Constantinoplewas chosen as Gregory’s successor as Bishop of Constantinople and chaired the later sessions of the council.

Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem was known for his steadfast support of Nicene orthodoxy.

Peter, Bishop of Alexandria was a key figure in maintaining Nicene orthodoxy in Egypt.

Amphilochius was Bishop of Iconium (in Asia Minor), and a staunch ally of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Diodore, Bishop of Tarsus (in Cilicia) was a prominent theologian.

Gregory of Nyssa, brother of Basil the Great; Bishop of Nyssa and a leading theologian of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Helladius of Caesarea was the successor to Basil the Great as Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia.

Eulogius, Bishop of Edessa was a defender of Nicene orthodoxy.

Eusebius of Samosata was known for his support of pro-Nicene bishops during the Arian persecutions.

Pelagius, Bishop of Laodicea in Syria.

Flavian of Antioch succeeded Meletius as Bishop of Antioch during the council.

The Refinement of the Creed

The council reaffirmed the Nicene Creed (325 AD) with additions, primarily clarifying the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The creed states (original Nicene creed in italics):

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end.

And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets.

In one holy, catholic, and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

 Canons of the Council

The council issued 7 canons, addressing theological, disciplinary, and ecclesiastical issues.

 Canon 1: Concerning the Faith

The faith of the 318 Fathers assembled at Nicaea in Bithynia shall not be set aside, but shall remain firm. Every heresy shall be anathematized, and in particular that of the Eunomians or Anomoeans, the Arians or Eudoxians, the Semi-Arians or Pneumatomachians, the Sabellians, the Marcellians, the Photinians, and the Apollinarians.

This canon ratifies the canons of the first ecumenical council and shows that this council wasn’t specifically concerning the prevalence of Arianism.

---

Canon 2: Concerning Church Boundaries

The bishops are not to go beyond their dioceses to churches lying outside their bounds, nor bring confusion on the churches; but, according to the canons, the Bishop of Alexandria shall alone administer the affairs of Egypt; the bishops of the East, the affairs of the East only, the privileges of the Church in Antioch, mentioned in the canons of Nicaea, being preserved; and the bishops of the Asian Diocese shall administer the Asian affairs only; and those of the Pontic Diocese, the affairs of Pontus only; and those of the Thracian Diocese, the affairs of Thrace only. But the bishops of the Diocese of Constantinople shall administer the affairs of Constantinople only. And bishops shall not go beyond their dioceses for ordination or any other ecclesiastical ministrations, unless they be invited. The canon concerning dioceses being observed, it is evident that the synod of every province will administer the affairs of that particular province as was decreed at Nicaea. But the churches of God in heathen nations must be governed according to the custom which has prevailed from the times of the Fathers.

 This canon reinforced the territorial organization of the Church, emphasizing that bishops should not interfere in dioceses outside their own jurisdiction. It also formalized the privileges of major sees, especially Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria. This organization, along with the third canon, set the stage for the Great Schism to come 700 years later.

---

Canon 3: Concerning the Bishop of Constantinople

The Bishop of Constantinople shall have the prerogative of honor after the Bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is New Rome.

Because the Roman see was proximate to the Capitol of the empire, it wielded significant influence on legislation and public policy. The Roman Bishop was therefore considered first among equals, although this appellation conferred no authority, and other Bishops granted no fealty to Rome over other sees.  This is evidenced by St. Cyprian of Carthage’s Statement at the Seventh Council of Carthage:

"None of us sets himself up as a bishop of bishops, or by tyrannical terror forces his colleagues to a necessity of obeying; inasmuch as every bishop, in the free use of his liberty and power, has the right of forming his own judgment, and cannot be judged by another, nor is he able to judge another. But we must all await the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who alone has the power both of preferring us in the government of His Church, and of judging of our actions."

As the secular seat of power slowly shifted to Constantinople after Rome had been repeatedly sacked by barbarians, Rome’s influence began to wane.  This canon asserts that the See of Constantinople shall be the second most prominent see as a result.

---

Canon 4: Concerning the Election of Maximus the Cynic

Regarding Maximus the Cynic and the disorder which has occurred in Constantinople on his account, it is decreed that Maximus neither was nor is a bishop, nor are those ordained by him in any rank of the clergy whatever; all that has been done by him, or with him, is null and void.

This canon officially resolved the controversy surrounding the elevation of Maximus to Bishop over Gregory of Nazianzus.

---

Canon 5: Concerning Charges Against Bishops

Regarding the charges against bishops, the council decrees that any accusations must be brought before a synod of bishops within the province. Accusers must be trustworthy and not of questionable character.

This addressed a rising problem of unauthorized or irregular ordinations, particularly by bishops who acted outside the established ecclesiastical structure. Bishops were being appointed without the proper consent of the local or provincial bishops, leading to disorder and potential schism. This practice could result in rival bishops being installed in the same area, creating confusion, division, and competing claims of authority. Without a centralized structure, such ordinations could cause serious ecclesiastical and theological confusion within communities. This canon established a process of adjudication by peer bishops should a disagreement occur.

---

Canon 6: Concerning Heretics Returning to the Church

Heretics who wish to join orthodoxy must declare in writing and anathematize every heresy that is not in agreement with the Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church of God, particularly the Arian heresy, the Eunomians, the Semi-Arians, the Sabellians, the Marcellians, the Photinians, and the Apollinarians.

---

Canon 7: Concerning Converts from Heresy

Those who turn from heresy to orthodoxy and join the portion of those being saved are to be received as follows: Arians, Macedonians, Sabbatians, Novatians who call themselves Cathari or Aristeri, Quartodecimans, and Apollinarians are to give a written renunciation of their heresies and anathematize every heresy that is not in agreement with the Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church of God. They are then to be sealed (confirmed) and taught the creed. Those from the heresy of the Eunomians, who are baptized with a single immersion, or from the Montanists, or from the Sabellians, who teach the identity of the Father and Son, or from any other heresies, especially those named here, must be baptized again.

These last two canons prescribe the process to receive penitent heretics back to the church.

 Conclusion

The Second Ecumenical Council established key doctrines, resolved pressing theological disputes, and strengthened the organizational structure of the Church. Its decisions reverberated through subsequent centuries, shaping both the theological and institutional development of Christianity. The council’s decisions served as a reference point for ongoing theological debates, ensuring that future controversies (e.g., Nestorianism, Monophysitism) were addressed within the Nicene framework. The precedent set by this council helped shape subsequent ecumenical councils, including Ephesus (431 AD) and Chalcedon (451 AD), which continued to address heresies and refine theological understanding. However, it also sowed seeds of future conflicts, particularly between the Eastern and Western Churches, underscoring its dual legacy as a unifying and divisive force in Christian history.

 This is part 2 of a 7 part series.  See part 1: The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea