A popular protestant trope is that Christianity - specifically the Roman Catholic Church - was subverted by the Emperor Constantine in AD 325, and became a Neo-pagan cult. This hogwash began during the Protestant reformation and was promoted for centuries by Protestants to justify their heresy. Never mind that the Roman Catholic Church from which Protestantism sprang is a far different church than that of the Christian world of 325. The promoters of this propaganda seem to have never heard of the Orthodox Church. They got away with this nonsense for so long because there was no readily available history of what actually transpired in the first Council of Nicaea. Even today, if you try to find details about the council, you'll have a hard time finding a definitive source. This blog aims to rectify that, and subsequent blogs will detail the other ecumenical councils.
St. Alexander of Alexandria – Patriarch of Alexandria, a leading opponent of Arianism.
St. Athanasius of Alexandria – Deacon and secretary to Alexander of Alexandria, who later became a central figure against Arianism.
St. Eustathius of Antioch – Bishop of Antioch and an outspoken defender of Nicene orthodoxy.
St. Macarius of Jerusalem – Bishop of Jerusalem, who contributed to discussions on church jurisdiction.
Hosius of Corduba – Bishop of Corduba (Spain), representing the Western Church and serving as a close advisor to Emperor Constantine.
Nicholas of Myra – Bishop of Myra (modern-day Turkey), popularly known as St. Nicholas.
Eusebius of Nicomedia – Initially sympathetic to Arian views, he later played a role in promoting semi-Arian ideas.
Eusebius of Caesarea – Bishop of Caesarea, church historian, and theologian who supported a compromise position.
Leontius of Caesarea – Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia and a firm opponent of Arianism.
Marcellus of Ancyra – Bishop of Ancyra (Ankara), a staunch anti-Arian who later became embroiled in theological controversy.
Paphnutius of Thebes – An Egyptian bishop known for his asceticism and orthodoxy.
Spyridon of Trimythous – Bishop of Trimythous (Cyprus), noted for his simplicity and wonderworking reputation.
Potamon of Heraclea – Bishop from Egypt and a strong opponent of Arianism.
Aetius of Lydda – Bishop from Palestine.
Theognis of Nicaea – Bishop of Nicaea, initially supportive of Arius.
Paul of Neocaesarea – Bishop from Cappadocia.
Gregory of Bostra – Bishop from Arabia.
John of Persia and India – Bishop of the Persian and Indian regions, representing Eastern Christianity.
Hypatian of Gangra – Bishop from Paphlagonia.
Amphion of Epiphania – Bishop from Syria.
Anthimus of Nicomedia – Bishop of Nicomedia, killed in an earlier persecution.
Menophantus of Ephesus – Bishop of Ephesus.
Patrophilus of Scythopolis – Bishop from Palestine, sympathetic to Arius.
Gaius of Didymoteichus – Bishop from Thrace.
Alexander of Thessalonica – Bishop of Thessalonica.
Longinus of Ashkelon – Bishop from Palestine.
Euphration of Balanea – Bishop from Syria.
Diodorus of Tenedos – Bishop from the island of Tenedos.
Heliodorus of Laodicea – Bishop from Syria.
Theodorus of Perinthus – Bishop from Thrace.
Sabas of Methone – Bishop from Greece.
Nicetas of Remesiana – Bishop from what is now Serbia.
Alexander of Byzantium – Bishop of Byzantium (later Constantinople).
Theophilus the Goth – Bishop from Gothic territories.
Narcissus of Neronias – Bishop from Cilicia.
Secundus of Ptolemais – Bishop from Libya, a supporter of Arius.
George of Laodicea – Bishop of Laodicea, initially sympathetic to Arianism.
Eusebius of Nicomedia – Strong supporter of Arius and influential figure.
Theognis of Nicaea – Supported the Arian cause at Nicaea.
Maris of Chalcedon – Bishop of Chalcedon, supported Arianism initially.
Secundus of Ptolemais – Bishop from Libya and an ally of Arius.
John of Persia and India – Represented Christians from the East.
Theophilus the Goth – Likely from Gothic territories north of the Empire.
Auxentius of Mopsuestia – Bishop from Cilicia.
Germanus of Sirmium – Bishop from Pannonia (modern-day Serbia).
Cyril of Jerusalem – Later Bishop of Jerusalem, though young at the time.
Moses of Khorasan – Bishop from Armenia.
The Resolution against Arianism and Establishment of the Creed
Resolution: The council decisively condemned Arianism, affirming that the Son is "of the same essence" (homoousios) as the Father. This established that the Son is co-eternal, uncreated, and fully divine, sharing the same divine nature as God the Father.
The resolution against Arianism is most clearly expressed in the original text of the Nicene Creed that was adopted in 325 AD. This creed was based the creed that was revealed to St. Gregory the Wonderworker and bishop of Neo-Caesarea by the Theotokos and St. John the Apostle. It was more detailed in addressing the Arian heresy and the divinity of Christ. The creed explicitly affirms the Son’s divinity and rejects Arian views by stating that the Son is “of the same essence” (homoousios) as the Father. Below is the specific text of the original Nicene Creed, along with the anathema (a formal condemnation) against Arian beliefs:
The Nicene Creed (325 AD)
"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten from the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one essence with the Father; through whom all things came into being, things in heaven and things on earth; who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate, becoming human; he suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into the heavens; from there he will come to judge the living and the dead.
And in the Holy Spirit."
Note that this differs from the Creed we know today. The second part that we're familiar with was added in the Second Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople.
The Anathema Against Arianism
The Council added an anathema specifically condemning Arian views, which reads:
"But as for those who say, ‘There was when he was not,’ and, ‘Before being begotten he was not,’ and that he came into existence out of nothing, or who assert that the Son of God is of a different essence or substance, or created, or subject to alteration or change—these the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes."
Key Points of the Condemnation:
- "There was when he was not": Rejects the Arian belief that the Son did not exist eternally and was instead created in time.
- "Before being begotten he was not": Condemns the idea that the Son did not exist before His generation by the Father.
- "Came into existence out of nothing": Denies the claim that the Son was created from nothing, as creatures are.
- "Different essence or substance": Asserts that the Son shares the same essence (homoousios) with the Father, rather than being of a different, created essence.
- "Subject to alteration or change": Declares that the Son’s divine nature is unchangeable, opposing the Arian view that He could be mutable.
This text not only refutes Arian claims but also establishes the orthodox Christian teaching of the Son’s eternal and divine nature, unified with the Father, forming the foundation of Trinitarian doctrine.
Establishing the Date of Easter
Background: There were significant disagreements about when to celebrate Easter, with some communities following the Jewish Passover date (Quartodeciman practice), while others followed a different calculation.
Resolution: The council decided that Easter should be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox, separating it from the Jewish Passover. This decision was meant to unify the celebration of Easter across the Christian world, establishing a tradition still followed in the Orthodox and Western churches.
Summary of the Decision on Pascha at Nicaea
The council decreed that:
- Pascha (Easter) should be celebrated on the same Sunday throughout the Christian world to promote unity in observance.
- Pascha should be celebrated independently of the Jewish Passover (which follows the lunar calendar), as the council wanted to separate Christian practices from Jewish customs.
- The date would be based on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox. This keeps the celebration close to the Jewish Passover but ensures it will always occur on a Sunday.
Emperor Constantine’s Letter to the Bishops (Eusebius’ Account)
While the council did not record an official canon on Pascha, a surviving letter from Emperor Constantine, as preserved by Eusebius in Life of Constantine, captures the essence of the council's decision:
"It appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin … Let us, then, have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd … we desire, dearest brethren, to separate ourselves from the detestable company of the Jews, for it is truly shameful for us to hear them boast that without their direction we could not keep this feast. How can they be in the right, they who, after the death of the Lord, have wandered in error? … Therefore, this irregularity must be corrected, in order that we may no more have anything in common with those parricides and murderers of our Lord."
This statement from Constantine, which was shared with bishops and communities following the council, reflects the council’s intention to establish a unified celebration of Pascha separate from the Jewish calendar. However, the technical details of calculating the date were not finalized at Nicaea itself; they evolved in subsequent years and through later councils.
So while the council initiated the separation of Pascha from the Jewish Passover and anchored its timing to Sunday following the spring full moon, the exact formula became standardized over time. This decision is why Christians today celebrate Easter independently of the Jewish Passover, using the method based on the Nicene framework.
Today, the Eastern Orthodox Church follows the Julian Calendar and the traditional Paschalion, ensuring that Pascha always falls on a Sunday after the Jewish Passover, in line with this custom that developed after Nicaea rather than from the council itself.
Establishment of the Scriptural Canon
The Council did not officially address or determine the scriptural canon of the Bible. Although the council tackled major theological issues, particularly Arianism, and established ecclesiastical rules through its 20 canons, no surviving records indicate that the council took formal action on the canon of Scripture.
That said, the bishops at Nicaea were certainly aware of the growing consensus around key scriptural texts. By this time, many Christian communities had begun widely accepting the four Gospels, the letters of Paul, and certain other writings as authoritative. However, the precise content of the New Testament canon was still under informal discussion in various regions of the early Church.
Some traditions or legends later suggested that the Council of Nicaea determined the books of the Bible, but no historical records support this claim. The Council’s primary focus remained theological doctrine, particularly regarding the nature of Christ, as well as church discipline and liturgical uniformity.
The Canons (Laws or Rulings) of the Council
Canon 1, Concerning Eunuchs and Ministry:
"If anyone in sickness has been mutilated by physicians, or if anyone has been castrated by barbarians, let such remain among the clergy. But if anyone in sound health has castrated himself, it is good for such a one, if already enrolled among the clergy, to cease from his ministry, and henceforth not to be advanced. But, as it is evident that this is said of those who willfully do the thing and presume to castrate themselves, so if any have been made eunuchs by barbarians, or by their masters, they may continue as clergymen in the same condition."
Canon 2, Concerning New Converts:
"Since, either from necessity or through the urgency of individuals, many things have been done contrary to the ecclesiastical canon, so that men just converted from heathenism to the faith, and who were instructed but a little while, have been brought at once to the spiritual laver, and as soon as baptized were advanced to the episcopate or the priesthood, it has seemed right to us that for the future no such thing shall be done. For to the catechumen himself there is need of time and of a longer trial after baptism. For the apostolic saying is clear, 'Not a novice, lest being lifted up with pride he fall into condemnation and the snare of the devil.' But if, as time goes on, any sensual sin should be found out about the person, and he is convicted by two or three witnesses, let him cease from the clerical office. And whosoever shall transgress these enactments will imperil his own clerical position, as a person convicted of disobedience."
Canon 3, Concerning Clerics living with Women:
"The great Synod has stringently forbidden any bishop, presbyter, deacon, or any one of the clergy whatsoever, to have a subintroducta in his house, except only a mother, or sister, or aunt, or such persons only as are beyond all suspicion."
Canon 4, Concerning Appointment of Bishops:
"It is by all means desirable that a bishop should be appointed by all the bishops of the province; but if this be difficult, either on account of urgent necessity or because of distance, three at least should meet together, and the suffrages of the absent bishops also being given and communicated in writing, then the ordination should take place. But in every province the ratification of what is done should be left to the Metropolitan."
Canon 5, Concerning Excommunication:
"Concerning those, whether of the clergy or of the laity, who have been excommunicated in the several provinces, let the provisions of the canon be observed by the bishops, which provides that persons cast out by some be not readmitted by others. Nevertheless, let inquiry be made whether they have been excommunicated through peevishness, or contentiousness, or any such like ungracious disposition in the bishop. And that this may be duly carried out, it has seemed good that in every province synods should be held twice a year, in order that when all the bishops of the province are assembled together, such questions may be thoroughly examined into by them, and so that those who have confessedly offended against their bishop may be seen by all to be for a season excommunicated, or that such persons as have been wrongly excluded from communion may be admitted again. And these synods shall be held, one before Lent, that the pure Gift may be offered to God after all bitterness has been put away, and again in the autumn."
Canon 6, Concerning the Authority of Major Sees:
"Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. Likewise in Antioch and the other provinces, let the Churches retain their privileges. And this is to be universally understood, that if anyone be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolitan, the great Synod has declared that such a man ought not to be a bishop. If, however, two or three by reason of personal rivalry do oppose the common suffrage of all, which is according to the ecclesiastical canon, then let the choice of the majority prevail."
Canon 7, Concerning the Privileges of Jerusalem:
"Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia (that is, Jerusalem) should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."
Canon 8, Concerning the Reception of the Schismatic Novatians:
"Concerning those who call themselves Cathari, if they come over to the Catholic and Apostolic Church, the great and holy Synod decrees that they who are ordained shall continue as they are in the clergy. But it is before all things necessary that they should profess in writing that they will observe and follow the decrees of the Catholic and Apostolic Church; in particular, that they will communicate with persons who have been twice married, and with those who have lapsed in persecution, and for whom a time has been fixed, and a season of penance enjoined. So that in all things they may observe the ecclesiastical decrees. Wherever, however, any of these come over, whether they were in villages or in cities, let the Bishop of the Catholic Church have the authority, if he should see fit, to ordain them as he pleases. But if he should not wish to ordain them, then let them give to them the honor of being in the clergy. And those who are not in orders, are not to be ordained. Moreover, those who come over should be rebaptized. But if any have been ordained in an irregular manner, but have otherwise done uprightly in their life, let them be received with the laying on of hands as clergymen of the Catholic Church."
Canon 9, Concerning Unordained Ministers:
"If any presbyters have been advanced without examination, or if upon examination they have confessed crimes, and men in ignorance of the matter have laid hands upon them, the canon does not admit such persons; for the Catholic Church requires that only such as are blameless should be admitted to the clergy."
Canon 10, Concerning Relapsed Clergy:
"If anyone who has lapsed has been ordained through ignorance or even with knowledge of the fact, this shall not prejudice the canon of the Church; for when he is discovered he shall be deposed."
Canon 11, Concerning Penance for the Lapsed:
"Concerning those who have lapsed without necessity, and without the spoiling of their property, or without danger, or such like circumstances, the Synod decrees that, though they are not to be entirely cast out, yet are they to be dealt with as those who fall under the common canon of penitence. And therefore, to them is assigned a more severe penance, and after this, being found in good works, they may be admitted, if it shall seem fit."
Canon 12, Concerning Lapsed Military Converts:
"As many as were called by grace, and displayed the first zeal, having cast aside their military girdles, but afterwards returned like dogs to their own vomit, so that some spent money and by means of gifts regained their military stations, let these, after they have passed the space of three years as hearers, be for ten years prostrators. But in all these cases, it is necessary to examine well into their purpose and repentance. For as many as give evidence of their conversion by deeds, and not pretence, with fear, and tears, and perseverance, and good works, when they have fulfilled their appointed time as hearers, may properly communicate in prayers, and after that the bishop may determine yet something more favorable concerning them. But those who take the matter with indifference, and who think the form of entering the Church is sufficient for their conversion, must fulfill the whole time."
Canon 13. Concerning Deathbed Communion:
"Concerning the departing, the ancient canonical law is still to be maintained, to wit, that if any man be at the point of death, he must not be deprived of the last and most indispensable Viaticum. But if, after he has been thought worthy of communion, and has partaken of the Offering, he be again numbered among the living, let him be placed only among those who communicate in prayers. But, generally, and in the case of anyone in danger of death asking to receive the Eucharist, the bishop shall give it to him."
Canon 14, Concerning Penitential Requirements for Catechumens:
"Concerning catechumens who have lapsed, the holy and great Synod has decreed that, after they have passed three years as hearers only, they shall again pray with the catechumens."
Canon 15, Concerning Restrictions on Clerical Mobility:
"On account of the great disturbance and discords that occur, it is decreed that no bishop, presbyter, or deacon shall pass from city to city. And if anyone, after this decree of the holy and great Synod, shall attempt any such thing, or continue in any such course, his proceedings shall be utterly void, and he shall be restored to the Church for which he was ordained bishop or presbyter."
Canon 16, Concerning Disciplinary Transfers:
"If any presbyter or deacon, desiring to withdraw from his own church, entirely abandons it, and goes over to another, let him no longer perform the office of the ministry; especially if he cannot persuade the bishop of the diocese to which he had attached himself, to receive him into communion, he must be content to be admitted only to lay communion."
Canon 17, Concerning a Prohibition on Clerical Usury:
"Forasmuch as many enrolled among the clergy, following covetousness and lust for gain, have forgotten the divine Scripture, which says, 'He hath not given his money upon usury,' and in lending money ask the hundredth of the sum, the holy and great Synod thinks it just that, if after this decree any one shall be found to receive usury, whether he accomplish it by secret transactions, or otherwise, he shall be deposed from the clergy and his name stricken from the list."
Canon 18, Concerning the Deacon's Role in Eucharist:
"It has come to the knowledge of the holy and great Synod that, in some places and cities, the deacons administer the Eucharist to the presbyters, whereas neither canon nor custom permits that they who have no right to offer should give the Body of Christ to those who do offer. And this also has been made known, that certain deacons now touch the Eucharist even before the bishops. Let all such practices be utterly done away, and let the deacons remain within their own bounds, knowing that they are the ministers of the bishop, and inferiors of the presbyters. Let them receive the Eucharist according to their order, after the presbyters, and let either the bishop or presbyter administer to them. Further, let not the deacons sit among the presbyters, for that order is beyond their authority. And if, after this decree, anyone shall refuse to obey, let him cease from his ministry."
Canon 19, Concerning the Rebaptism of Paulianists:
(Followers of Paul of Samosata were a heretical sect)
"Concerning the Paulianists who have flown for refuge to the Catholic Church, it has been decreed that they must by all means be rebaptized; and if any of them in past time have been numbered among their clergy, if they be found blameless and without reproach, let them be ordained by the bishop of the Catholic Church. But if on examination they are found unfit, let them be deposed. Likewise, if any of their clergy shall turn to the Catholic Church, let them in like manner be rebaptized; but if they be not rebaptized, let them be made to renounce their heresy, and afterward let them communicate in prayers with the faithful. In all cases, however, bishops are to be careful that the goods and chattels of the Church are not appropriated to any individual's profit, but that all should remain intact for the Church."
Canon 20, Concerning Kneeling during Liturgy:
"Forasmuch as there are certain persons who kneel on the Lord's Day and in the days of Pentecost, therefore, to the intent that all things may be uniformly observed everywhere in every parish, it seems good to the holy Synod that prayer be made to God standing."
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