The Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople

Background

Despite its condemnation at Nicaea, Arianism persisted and even flourished in parts of the Eastern Roman Empire, particularly under emperors sympathetic to Arian views. For example, Emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) actively supported Arian bishops and clergy, allowing Arianism to maintain a significant foothold. Various Arian factions, such as the Eunomians (extreme Arians who taught that the Son was entirely unlike the Father) and the Semi-Arians (who sought a middle ground, using terms like homoiousios, "of similar substance"), kept the controversy alive.

The Nicene Creed did not explicitly address the nature of the Holy Spirit. While it affirmed the divinity of the Son, it left room for debate about the status of the Holy Spirit, leading to the rise of heresies like Macedonianism (also called Pneumatomachianism), which denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit. These gaps in theological clarity created a need for a more comprehensive articulation of Trinitarian doctrine.

The Church was divided into factions, with different regions supporting different theological views. Some bishops supported Nicene orthodoxy, others favored Semi-Arianism, and still others adhered to extreme Arian or Pneumatomachian positions. This fragmentation weakened the unity of the Church and made it difficult to uphold consistent doctrine.

In 381 AD, Emperor Theodosius I became a strong supporter of Nicene Christianity and sought to restore doctrinal unity within the empire. He called the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople to reaffirm and expand the Nicene faith and to suppress the influence of heretical groups. This provided the Church with an opportunity to address unresolved theological and ecclesiastical disputes. This council wasn’t considered ecumenical at first, but was declared to be ecumenical by the third ecumenical council.

 Maximus the Cynic (also known as Maximus of Constantinople) was a controversial figure from Alexandria. He was trained as a philosopher and earned the nickname "the Cynic" because of his association with Cynic philosophy, a school known for its ascetic lifestyle and disdain for social norms. Maximus gained a reputation as a zealous opponent of Arianism, which likely helped him gain support among orthodox Christians. He positioned himself as an ally of Athanasius, the revered bishop of Alexandria who was a leading anti-Arian figure. This association helped him establish connections within the Church and eventually led him to Constantinople, where he hoped to gain more influence.

After the death of Bishop Paul I of Constantinople in 350 AD, Gregory of Nazianzus was appointed to the see. While Gregory was respected for his theological insight and commitment to orthodoxy, he was unpopular among some factions, particularly due to his association with Cappadocian clergy. Seeing an opportunity, Maximus - with the support of some Egyptian clergy - staged an unauthorized ordination to claim the bishopric of Constantinople. This ordination was carried out secretly at night, which undermined its legitimacy. When the situation became known, it sparked outrage among local clergy and laity. Gregory of Nazianzus and others quickly denounced Maximus’s ordination as illegitimate. The local clergy and people of Constantinople rejected Maximus’s claim to the bishopric, refusing to recognize his authority. Gregory appealed to the Emperor Theodosius I, who upheld Gregory’s position and dismissed Maximus’s claims.

Gregory of Nazianzus himself was ambivalent about his position in Constantinople, feeling alienated and frustrated by the politics of the city. This contributed to his lack of popularity; he was seen as a reluctant bishop who openly expressed his weariness and dissatisfaction with the ecclesiastical environment of the capital.

The Council

The Second Ecumenical Council was convened in May, 381 AD. Meletius of Antioch chaired the council initially.  150 bishops attended, all from the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. The council is often referred to as an "Eastern council" because no Western bishops were present. The Western Church later accepted its decisions, but it was largely a gathering of bishops from the East. The council's purpose was to suppress Arianism, so most Arian-leaning bishops had either been removed from their sees or refused to accept the Nicene faith and were excluded. Notable attendees included:

Meletius of Antioch, the initial president of the council; he died early during the proceedings.

Gregory of Nazianzus, who was Bishop of Constantinople at the time was appointed president after Meletius's death. He was disgusted at the political and theological fighting that took place and resigned both as chairman and bishop during the council.

Nectarius of Constantinoplewas chosen as Gregory’s successor as Bishop of Constantinople and chaired the later sessions of the council.

Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem was known for his steadfast support of Nicene orthodoxy.

Peter, Bishop of Alexandria was a key figure in maintaining Nicene orthodoxy in Egypt.

Amphilochius was Bishop of Iconium (in Asia Minor), and a staunch ally of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Diodore, Bishop of Tarsus (in Cilicia) was a prominent theologian.

Gregory of Nyssa, brother of Basil the Great; Bishop of Nyssa and a leading theologian of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Helladius of Caesarea was the successor to Basil the Great as Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia.

Eulogius, Bishop of Edessa was a defender of Nicene orthodoxy.

Eusebius of Samosata was known for his support of pro-Nicene bishops during the Arian persecutions.

Pelagius, Bishop of Laodicea in Syria.

Flavian of Antioch succeeded Meletius as Bishop of Antioch during the council.

The Refinement of the Creed

The council reaffirmed the Nicene Creed (325 AD) with additions, primarily clarifying the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The creed states (original Nicene creed in italics):

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end.

And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets.

In one holy, catholic, and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

 Canons of the Council

The council issued 7 canons, addressing theological, disciplinary, and ecclesiastical issues.

 Canon 1: Concerning the Faith

The faith of the 318 Fathers assembled at Nicaea in Bithynia shall not be set aside, but shall remain firm. Every heresy shall be anathematized, and in particular that of the Eunomians or Anomoeans, the Arians or Eudoxians, the Semi-Arians or Pneumatomachians, the Sabellians, the Marcellians, the Photinians, and the Apollinarians.

This canon ratifies the canons of the first ecumenical council and shows that this council wasn’t specifically concerning the prevalence of Arianism.

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Canon 2: Concerning Church Boundaries

The bishops are not to go beyond their dioceses to churches lying outside their bounds, nor bring confusion on the churches; but, according to the canons, the Bishop of Alexandria shall alone administer the affairs of Egypt; the bishops of the East, the affairs of the East only, the privileges of the Church in Antioch, mentioned in the canons of Nicaea, being preserved; and the bishops of the Asian Diocese shall administer the Asian affairs only; and those of the Pontic Diocese, the affairs of Pontus only; and those of the Thracian Diocese, the affairs of Thrace only. But the bishops of the Diocese of Constantinople shall administer the affairs of Constantinople only. And bishops shall not go beyond their dioceses for ordination or any other ecclesiastical ministrations, unless they be invited. The canon concerning dioceses being observed, it is evident that the synod of every province will administer the affairs of that particular province as was decreed at Nicaea. But the churches of God in heathen nations must be governed according to the custom which has prevailed from the times of the Fathers.

 This canon reinforced the territorial organization of the Church, emphasizing that bishops should not interfere in dioceses outside their own jurisdiction. It also formalized the privileges of major sees, especially Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria. This organization, along with the third canon, set the stage for the Great Schism to come 700 years later.

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Canon 3: Concerning the Bishop of Constantinople

The Bishop of Constantinople shall have the prerogative of honor after the Bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is New Rome.

Because the Roman see was proximate to the Capitol of the empire, it wielded significant influence on legislation and public policy. The Roman Bishop was therefore considered first among equals, although this appellation conferred no authority, and other Bishops granted no fealty to Rome over other sees.  This is evidenced by St. Cyprian of Carthage’s Statement at the Seventh Council of Carthage:

"None of us sets himself up as a bishop of bishops, or by tyrannical terror forces his colleagues to a necessity of obeying; inasmuch as every bishop, in the free use of his liberty and power, has the right of forming his own judgment, and cannot be judged by another, nor is he able to judge another. But we must all await the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who alone has the power both of preferring us in the government of His Church, and of judging of our actions."

As the secular seat of power slowly shifted to Constantinople after Rome had been repeatedly sacked by barbarians, Rome’s influence began to wane.  This canon asserts that the See of Constantinople shall be the second most prominent see as a result.

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Canon 4: Concerning the Election of Maximus the Cynic

Regarding Maximus the Cynic and the disorder which has occurred in Constantinople on his account, it is decreed that Maximus neither was nor is a bishop, nor are those ordained by him in any rank of the clergy whatever; all that has been done by him, or with him, is null and void.

This canon officially resolved the controversy surrounding the elevation of Maximus to Bishop over Gregory of Nazianzus.

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Canon 5: Concerning Charges Against Bishops

Regarding the charges against bishops, the council decrees that any accusations must be brought before a synod of bishops within the province. Accusers must be trustworthy and not of questionable character.

This addressed a rising problem of unauthorized or irregular ordinations, particularly by bishops who acted outside the established ecclesiastical structure. Bishops were being appointed without the proper consent of the local or provincial bishops, leading to disorder and potential schism. This practice could result in rival bishops being installed in the same area, creating confusion, division, and competing claims of authority. Without a centralized structure, such ordinations could cause serious ecclesiastical and theological confusion within communities. This canon established a process of adjudication by peer bishops should a disagreement occur.

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Canon 6: Concerning Heretics Returning to the Church

Heretics who wish to join orthodoxy must declare in writing and anathematize every heresy that is not in agreement with the Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church of God, particularly the Arian heresy, the Eunomians, the Semi-Arians, the Sabellians, the Marcellians, the Photinians, and the Apollinarians.

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Canon 7: Concerning Converts from Heresy

Those who turn from heresy to orthodoxy and join the portion of those being saved are to be received as follows: Arians, Macedonians, Sabbatians, Novatians who call themselves Cathari or Aristeri, Quartodecimans, and Apollinarians are to give a written renunciation of their heresies and anathematize every heresy that is not in agreement with the Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church of God. They are then to be sealed (confirmed) and taught the creed. Those from the heresy of the Eunomians, who are baptized with a single immersion, or from the Montanists, or from the Sabellians, who teach the identity of the Father and Son, or from any other heresies, especially those named here, must be baptized again.

These last two canons prescribe the process to receive penitent heretics back to the church.

 Conclusion

The Second Ecumenical Council established key doctrines, resolved pressing theological disputes, and strengthened the organizational structure of the Church. Its decisions reverberated through subsequent centuries, shaping both the theological and institutional development of Christianity. The council’s decisions served as a reference point for ongoing theological debates, ensuring that future controversies (e.g., Nestorianism, Monophysitism) were addressed within the Nicene framework. The precedent set by this council helped shape subsequent ecumenical councils, including Ephesus (431 AD) and Chalcedon (451 AD), which continued to address heresies and refine theological understanding. However, it also sowed seeds of future conflicts, particularly between the Eastern and Western Churches, underscoring its dual legacy as a unifying and divisive force in Christian history.

 This is part 2 of a 7 part series.  See part 1: The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

The First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

A popular protestant trope is that Christianity - specifically the Roman Catholic Church - was subverted by the Emperor Constantine in AD 325, and became a Neo-pagan cult. This hogwash began during the Protestant reformation and was promoted for centuries by Protestants to justify their heresy.  Never mind that the Roman Catholic Church from which Protestantism sprang is a far different church than that of the Christian world of 325.  The promoters of this propaganda seem to have never heard of the Orthodox Church.  They got away with this nonsense for so long because there was no readily available history of what actually transpired in the first Council of Nicaea.  Even today, if you try to find details about the council, you'll have a hard time finding a definitive source.  This blog aims to rectify that, and subsequent blogs will detail the other ecumenical councils.

The First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea by the Roman Emperor Constantine I. The Council of Nicaea met from May until the end of July 325. Before this Council, there had been local synods of Bishops to resolve local problems, but the issue of the Arian heresy was too widespread to be dealt with at a local level.  No Bishop had the authority to call a general council of all of Christendom - sorry, Romans, not even the Bishop of Rome, the Roman Pope.  Since the issue threatened the peace of the empire, Constantine exerted his authority to call the council and preside over it, even though he wasn't a Christian at the time.  Constantine's role as chair was non-voting, and he exerted no influence on theological matters.

The council was attended by approximately 318 Bishops. Some names are lost to history, as the record only shows their origin and not their name.  Notable attendees included:

St. Alexander of Alexandria – Patriarch of Alexandria, a leading opponent of Arianism.

St. Athanasius of Alexandria – Deacon and secretary to Alexander of Alexandria, who later became a central figure against Arianism.

St. Eustathius of Antioch – Bishop of Antioch and an outspoken defender of Nicene orthodoxy.

St. Macarius of Jerusalem – Bishop of Jerusalem, who contributed to discussions on church jurisdiction.

Hosius of Corduba – Bishop of Corduba (Spain), representing the Western Church and serving as a close advisor to Emperor Constantine.

Nicholas of Myra – Bishop of Myra (modern-day Turkey), popularly known as St. Nicholas.

Eusebius of Nicomedia – Initially sympathetic to Arian views, he later played a role in promoting semi-Arian ideas.

Eusebius of Caesarea – Bishop of Caesarea, church historian, and theologian who supported a compromise position.

Leontius of Caesarea – Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia and a firm opponent of Arianism.

Marcellus of Ancyra – Bishop of Ancyra (Ankara), a staunch anti-Arian who later became embroiled in theological controversy.

Paphnutius of Thebes – An Egyptian bishop known for his asceticism and orthodoxy.

Spyridon of Trimythous – Bishop of Trimythous (Cyprus), noted for his simplicity and wonderworking reputation.

Potamon of Heraclea – Bishop from Egypt and a strong opponent of Arianism.

Aetius of Lydda – Bishop from Palestine.

Theognis of Nicaea – Bishop of Nicaea, initially supportive of Arius.

Paul of Neocaesarea – Bishop from Cappadocia.

Gregory of Bostra – Bishop from Arabia.

John of Persia and India – Bishop of the Persian and Indian regions, representing Eastern Christianity.

Hypatian of Gangra – Bishop from Paphlagonia.

Amphion of Epiphania – Bishop from Syria.

Anthimus of Nicomedia – Bishop of Nicomedia, killed in an earlier persecution.

Menophantus of Ephesus – Bishop of Ephesus.

Patrophilus of Scythopolis – Bishop from Palestine, sympathetic to Arius.

Gaius of Didymoteichus – Bishop from Thrace.

Alexander of Thessalonica – Bishop of Thessalonica.

Longinus of Ashkelon – Bishop from Palestine.

Euphration of Balanea – Bishop from Syria.

Diodorus of Tenedos – Bishop from the island of Tenedos.

Heliodorus of Laodicea – Bishop from Syria.

Theodorus of Perinthus – Bishop from Thrace.

Sabas of Methone – Bishop from Greece.

Nicetas of Remesiana – Bishop from what is now Serbia.

Alexander of Byzantium – Bishop of Byzantium (later Constantinople).

Theophilus the Goth – Bishop from Gothic territories.

Narcissus of Neronias – Bishop from Cilicia.

Secundus of Ptolemais – Bishop from Libya, a supporter of Arius.

George of Laodicea – Bishop of Laodicea, initially sympathetic to Arianism.

Eusebius of Nicomedia – Strong supporter of Arius and influential figure.

Theognis of Nicaea – Supported the Arian cause at Nicaea.

Maris of Chalcedon – Bishop of Chalcedon, supported Arianism initially.

Secundus of Ptolemais – Bishop from Libya and an ally of Arius.

John of Persia and India – Represented Christians from the East.

Theophilus the Goth – Likely from Gothic territories north of the Empire.

Auxentius of Mopsuestia – Bishop from Cilicia.

Germanus of Sirmium – Bishop from Pannonia (modern-day Serbia).

Cyril of Jerusalem – Later Bishop of Jerusalem, though young at the time.

Moses of Khorasan – Bishop from Armenia.

 

The Resolution against Arianism and Establishment of the Creed

Arius’ Teachings: The primary theological issue was the teaching of Arius, a priest from Alexandria, who argued that the Son (Jesus Christ) was not co-eternal with the Father but was created as a subordinate being. This implied that the Son was not truly divine in the same sense as the Father.

Resolution: The council decisively condemned Arianism, affirming that the Son is "of the same essence" (homoousios) as the Father. This established that the Son is co-eternal, uncreated, and fully divine, sharing the same divine nature as God the Father.

The resolution against Arianism is most clearly expressed in the original text of the Nicene Creed that was adopted in 325 AD. This creed was based the creed that was revealed to St. Gregory the Wonderworker and bishop of Neo-Caesarea by the Theotokos and St. John the Apostle. It was more detailed in addressing the Arian heresy and the divinity of Christ. The creed explicitly affirms the Son’s divinity and rejects Arian views by stating that the Son is “of the same essence” (homoousios) as the Father. Below is the specific text of the original Nicene Creed, along with the anathema (a formal condemnation) against Arian beliefs:

The Nicene Creed (325 AD)

"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten from the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one essence with the Father; through whom all things came into being, things in heaven and things on earth; who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate, becoming human; he suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into the heavens; from there he will come to judge the living and the dead.

And in the Holy Spirit."

Note that this differs from the Creed we know today.  The second part that we're familiar with was added in the Second Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople.

The Anathema Against Arianism

The Council added an anathema specifically condemning Arian views, which reads:

"But as for those who say, ‘There was when he was not,’ and, ‘Before being begotten he was not,’ and that he came into existence out of nothing, or who assert that the Son of God is of a different essence or substance, or created, or subject to alteration or change—these the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes."

Key Points of the Condemnation:

1. "There was when he was not": Rejects the Arian belief that the Son did not exist eternally and was instead created in time.
   
   
2. "Before being begotten he was not": Condemns the idea that the Son did not exist before His generation by the Father.
   
   
3. "Came into existence out of nothing": Denies the claim that the Son was created from nothing, as creatures are.
   
   
   
4. "Different essence or substance": Asserts that the Son shares the same essence (homoousios) with the Father, rather than being of a different, created essence.
   
   
   
5. "Subject to alteration or change": Declares that the Son’s divine nature is unchangeable, opposing the Arian view that He could be mutable.

This text not only refutes Arian claims but also establishes the orthodox Christian teaching of the Son’s eternal and divine nature, unified with the Father, forming the foundation of Trinitarian doctrine.

Establishing the Date of Easter

 Background: There were significant disagreements about when to celebrate Easter, with some communities following the Jewish Passover date (Quartodeciman practice), while others followed a different calculation.

Resolution: The council decided that Easter should be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox, separating it from the Jewish Passover. This decision was meant to unify the celebration of Easter across the Christian world, establishing a tradition still followed in the Orthodox and Western churches.

Summary of the Decision on Pascha at Nicaea

The council decreed that:

1. Pascha (Easter) should be celebrated on the same Sunday throughout the Christian world to promote unity in observance.
   
   
   
2. Pascha should be celebrated independently of the Jewish Passover (which follows the lunar calendar), as the council wanted to separate Christian practices from Jewish customs.
   
   
   
3. The date would be based on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox. This keeps the celebration close to the Jewish Passover but ensures it will always occur on a Sunday.

Emperor Constantine’s Letter to the Bishops (Eusebius’ Account)

While the council did not record an official canon on Pascha, a surviving letter from Emperor Constantine, as preserved by Eusebius in Life of Constantine, captures the essence of the council's decision:

"It appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin … Let us, then, have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd … we desire, dearest brethren, to separate ourselves from the detestable company of the Jews, for it is truly shameful for us to hear them boast that without their direction we could not keep this feast. How can they be in the right, they who, after the death of the Lord, have wandered in error? … Therefore, this irregularity must be corrected, in order that we may no more have anything in common with those parricides and murderers of our Lord."

This statement from Constantine, which was shared with bishops and communities following the council, reflects the council’s intention to establish a unified celebration of Pascha separate from the Jewish calendar. However, the technical details of calculating the date were not finalized at Nicaea itself; they evolved in subsequent years and through later councils.

So while the council initiated the separation of Pascha from the Jewish Passover and anchored its timing to Sunday following the spring full moon, the exact formula became standardized over time. This decision is why Christians today celebrate Easter independently of the Jewish Passover, using the method based on the Nicene framework.

Today, the Eastern Orthodox Church follows the Julian Calendar and the traditional Paschalion, ensuring that Pascha always falls on a Sunday after the Jewish Passover, in line with this custom that developed after Nicaea rather than from the council itself.

Establishment of the Scriptural Canon 

The Council did not officially address or determine the scriptural canon of the Bible. Although the council tackled major theological issues, particularly Arianism, and established ecclesiastical rules through its 20 canons, no surviving records indicate that the council took formal action on the canon of Scripture.

That said, the bishops at Nicaea were certainly aware of the growing consensus around key scriptural texts. By this time, many Christian communities had begun widely accepting the four Gospels, the letters of Paul, and certain other writings as authoritative. However, the precise content of the New Testament canon was still under informal discussion in various regions of the early Church.

 Some traditions or legends later suggested that the Council of Nicaea determined the books of the Bible, but no historical records support this claim. The Council’s primary focus remained theological doctrine, particularly regarding the nature of Christ, as well as church discipline and liturgical uniformity.

The Canons (Laws or Rulings) of the Council 

Although specifically called to address Arianism, the Bishops took advantage of the council to clarify and standardize the Church's approach to many other lesser issues and questions that arose.

Canon 1, Concerning Eunuchs and Ministry:

"If anyone in sickness has been mutilated by physicians, or if anyone has been castrated by barbarians, let such remain among the clergy. But if anyone in sound health has castrated himself, it is good for such a one, if already enrolled among the clergy, to cease from his ministry, and henceforth not to be advanced. But, as it is evident that this is said of those who willfully do the thing and presume to castrate themselves, so if any have been made eunuchs by barbarians, or by their masters, they may continue as clergymen in the same condition."

Canon 2, Concerning New Converts:

"Since, either from necessity or through the urgency of individuals, many things have been done contrary to the ecclesiastical canon, so that men just converted from heathenism to the faith, and who were instructed but a little while, have been brought at once to the spiritual laver, and as soon as baptized were advanced to the episcopate or the priesthood, it has seemed right to us that for the future no such thing shall be done. For to the catechumen himself there is need of time and of a longer trial after baptism. For the apostolic saying is clear, 'Not a novice, lest being lifted up with pride he fall into condemnation and the snare of the devil.' But if, as time goes on, any sensual sin should be found out about the person, and he is convicted by two or three witnesses, let him cease from the clerical office. And whosoever shall transgress these enactments will imperil his own clerical position, as a person convicted of disobedience."

Canon 3, Concerning Clerics living with Women:

"The great Synod has stringently forbidden any bishop, presbyter, deacon, or any one of the clergy whatsoever, to have a subintroducta in his house, except only a mother, or sister, or aunt, or such persons only as are beyond all suspicion."

Canon 4, Concerning Appointment of Bishops:

"It is by all means desirable that a bishop should be appointed by all the bishops of the province; but if this be difficult, either on account of urgent necessity or because of distance, three at least should meet together, and the suffrages of the absent bishops also being given and communicated in writing, then the ordination should take place. But in every province the ratification of what is done should be left to the Metropolitan."

Canon 5, Concerning Excommunication:

"Concerning those, whether of the clergy or of the laity, who have been excommunicated in the several provinces, let the provisions of the canon be observed by the bishops, which provides that persons cast out by some be not readmitted by others. Nevertheless, let inquiry be made whether they have been excommunicated through peevishness, or contentiousness, or any such like ungracious disposition in the bishop. And that this may be duly carried out, it has seemed good that in every province synods should be held twice a year, in order that when all the bishops of the province are assembled together, such questions may be thoroughly examined into by them, and so that those who have confessedly offended against their bishop may be seen by all to be for a season excommunicated, or that such persons as have been wrongly excluded from communion may be admitted again. And these synods shall be held, one before Lent, that the pure Gift may be offered to God after all bitterness has been put away, and again in the autumn."

Canon 6, Concerning the Authority of Major Sees:

"Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. Likewise in Antioch and the other provinces, let the Churches retain their privileges. And this is to be universally understood, that if anyone be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolitan, the great Synod has declared that such a man ought not to be a bishop. If, however, two or three by reason of personal rivalry do oppose the common suffrage of all, which is according to the ecclesiastical canon, then let the choice of the majority prevail."

Canon 7, Concerning the Privileges of Jerusalem:

"Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia (that is, Jerusalem) should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."

Canon 8, Concerning the Reception of the Schismatic Novatians:

"Concerning those who call themselves Cathari, if they come over to the Catholic and Apostolic Church, the great and holy Synod decrees that they who are ordained shall continue as they are in the clergy. But it is before all things necessary that they should profess in writing that they will observe and follow the decrees of the Catholic and Apostolic Church; in particular, that they will communicate with persons who have been twice married, and with those who have lapsed in persecution, and for whom a time has been fixed, and a season of penance enjoined. So that in all things they may observe the ecclesiastical decrees. Wherever, however, any of these come over, whether they were in villages or in cities, let the Bishop of the Catholic Church have the authority, if he should see fit, to ordain them as he pleases. But if he should not wish to ordain them, then let them give to them the honor of being in the clergy. And those who are not in orders, are not to be ordained. Moreover, those who come over should be rebaptized. But if any have been ordained in an irregular manner, but have otherwise done uprightly in their life, let them be received with the laying on of hands as clergymen of the Catholic Church."

Canon 9, Concerning Unordained Ministers:

"If any presbyters have been advanced without examination, or if upon examination they have confessed crimes, and men in ignorance of the matter have laid hands upon them, the canon does not admit such persons; for the Catholic Church requires that only such as are blameless should be admitted to the clergy."

Canon 10, Concerning Relapsed Clergy:

"If anyone who has lapsed has been ordained through ignorance or even with knowledge of the fact, this shall not prejudice the canon of the Church; for when he is discovered he shall be deposed."

Canon 11, Concerning Penance for the Lapsed:

"Concerning those who have lapsed without necessity, and without the spoiling of their property, or without danger, or such like circumstances, the Synod decrees that, though they are not to be entirely cast out, yet are they to be dealt with as those who fall under the common canon of penitence. And therefore, to them is assigned a more severe penance, and after this, being found in good works, they may be admitted, if it shall seem fit."

Canon 12, Concerning Lapsed Military Converts:

"As many as were called by grace, and displayed the first zeal, having cast aside their military girdles, but afterwards returned like dogs to their own vomit, so that some spent money and by means of gifts regained their military stations, let these, after they have passed the space of three years as hearers, be for ten years prostrators. But in all these cases, it is necessary to examine well into their purpose and repentance. For as many as give evidence of their conversion by deeds, and not pretence, with fear, and tears, and perseverance, and good works, when they have fulfilled their appointed time as hearers, may properly communicate in prayers, and after that the bishop may determine yet something more favorable concerning them. But those who take the matter with indifference, and who think the form of entering the Church is sufficient for their conversion, must fulfill the whole time."

Canon 13. Concerning Deathbed Communion:

"Concerning the departing, the ancient canonical law is still to be maintained, to wit, that if any man be at the point of death, he must not be deprived of the last and most indispensable Viaticum. But if, after he has been thought worthy of communion, and has partaken of the Offering, he be again numbered among the living, let him be placed only among those who communicate in prayers. But, generally, and in the case of anyone in danger of death asking to receive the Eucharist, the bishop shall give it to him."

Canon 14, Concerning Penitential Requirements for Catechumens:

"Concerning catechumens who have lapsed, the holy and great Synod has decreed that, after they have passed three years as hearers only, they shall again pray with the catechumens."

Canon 15, Concerning Restrictions on Clerical Mobility:

"On account of the great disturbance and discords that occur, it is decreed that no bishop, presbyter, or deacon shall pass from city to city. And if anyone, after this decree of the holy and great Synod, shall attempt any such thing, or continue in any such course, his proceedings shall be utterly void, and he shall be restored to the Church for which he was ordained bishop or presbyter."

Canon 16, Concerning Disciplinary Transfers:

"If any presbyter or deacon, desiring to withdraw from his own church, entirely abandons it, and goes over to another, let him no longer perform the office of the ministry; especially if he cannot persuade the bishop of the diocese to which he had attached himself, to receive him into communion, he must be content to be admitted only to lay communion."

Canon 17, Concerning a Prohibition on Clerical Usury:

"Forasmuch as many enrolled among the clergy, following covetousness and lust for gain, have forgotten the divine Scripture, which says, 'He hath not given his money upon usury,' and in lending money ask the hundredth of the sum, the holy and great Synod thinks it just that, if after this decree any one shall be found to receive usury, whether he accomplish it by secret transactions, or otherwise, he shall be deposed from the clergy and his name stricken from the list."

Canon 18, Concerning the Deacon's Role in Eucharist:

"It has come to the knowledge of the holy and great Synod that, in some places and cities, the deacons administer the Eucharist to the presbyters, whereas neither canon nor custom permits that they who have no right to offer should give the Body of Christ to those who do offer. And this also has been made known, that certain deacons now touch the Eucharist even before the bishops. Let all such practices be utterly done away, and let the deacons remain within their own bounds, knowing that they are the ministers of the bishop, and inferiors of the presbyters. Let them receive the Eucharist according to their order, after the presbyters, and let either the bishop or presbyter administer to them. Further, let not the deacons sit among the presbyters, for that order is beyond their authority. And if, after this decree, anyone shall refuse to obey, let him cease from his ministry."

Canon 19, Concerning the Rebaptism of Paulianists:

(Followers of Paul of Samosata were a heretical sect)

"Concerning the Paulianists who have flown for refuge to the Catholic Church, it has been decreed that they must by all means be rebaptized; and if any of them in past time have been numbered among their clergy, if they be found blameless and without reproach, let them be ordained by the bishop of the Catholic Church. But if on examination they are found unfit, let them be deposed. Likewise, if any of their clergy shall turn to the Catholic Church, let them in like manner be rebaptized; but if they be not rebaptized, let them be made to renounce their heresy, and afterward let them communicate in prayers with the faithful. In all cases, however, bishops are to be careful that the goods and chattels of the Church are not appropriated to any individual's profit, but that all should remain intact for the Church."

Canon 20, Concerning Kneeling during Liturgy:

"Forasmuch as there are certain persons who kneel on the Lord's Day and in the days of Pentecost, therefore, to the intent that all things may be uniformly observed everywhere in every parish, it seems good to the holy Synod that prayer be made to God standing."

 Conclusion

There we have it, the declarations and canons of the Council of Nicaea.  Conspicuously absent is any hint of pagan influence.  The church was not restructured, nor the theology revised.  Issues were presented and resolved in the fashion of the Apostles, demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem detailed in Acts 15. The church wasn't remade according to Augustine, he had no vote in the decisions.

 

Nicaea I was the first of seven councils which clarified the faith in the face of evolving theologies and 

YHWH, the God of Jesus

So, I was recently informed that the God that Jesus worshiped and YHWH are two different Gods. The person making this claim is aghast at the “barbaric” rituals of the Jews, particularly the feast of the Red Heifer, which is specifically called for in Numbers 19: 1-7. The person who made this astounding claim backed it up with this supporting video by author Paul Wallis.

If you’re not familiar with it, the Bullshit Asymmetry Principle, or Brandolini’s Law, says that, “The amount of energy required to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude larger than is needed to produce it.” I’m not sure I want to devote ten times as much effort into refuting Wallis as he did in inventing his fantastic fiction, but I’ll give it a minor shot.

Before I start, this is the sort of nonsense that you end up with when you divorce yourself from the Memory of the Christian Church and assume that anyone armed with a Bible is as qualified as a patristic father to interpret scripture, especially when you disregard the ancient tradition which form the context and frame of reference in which the scripture was written.

Paul Wallis is first and foremost an author, and his primary goal is to sell his books. As a historian and religious scholar, he’s on par with the charlatans Zecharia Sitchin, Immanuel Velikovsky and L. Ron Hubbard. All of these men have invented fantastic theories of ancient history, devoid of common sense, scientific literacy or any tangible evidence. Wallis is no different. He invents a science fiction story that the Early people were influenced by Extraterrestrial visitors who taught them agriculture, and that YHWH was one of these who was an abusive dictator, and that all of scripture is the early peoples trying to tell us about this. Amazing that centuries of scholars never twigged to it. . . .

 Before I go into detail about why Wallis gets it wrong, let’s talk about some of the claims he makes in the video I linked to above, and disassemble some of the ways he cleverly twists scripture to support his fantasy.

First, he says several times that YHWH is never mentioned in the New testament, that "Jesus Never spoke in YHWH's name" and “Jesus never used the name YHWH.” Sorry, Paul, but the New Testament was written in Greek, not Hebrew. So you won’t see the word itself. But this claim is without merit because Jesus specifically refers to HIMSELF with that reference. We first hear the name “YHWH” in Exodus:

 Then Moses said to God, “Behold, I am going to the sons of Israel, and I shall say to them, ‘The God of your fathers has sent me to you.’ Now they may say to me, ‘What is His name?’ What shall I say to them?”

  And God said to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM”; and He said, “Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, ‘I AM (Hebrew: YHWH) has sent me to you.’” And God, furthermore, said to Moses, “Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, ‘The LORD, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you.’ This is My name forever, and this is My memorial-name to all generations.

-Exodus 3:13-15

Jesus proclaims himself to be this same god in John:

The Jews said to Him, “Now we know that You have a demon. Abraham died, and the prophets also; and You say, ‘If anyone keeps My word, he shall never taste of death.’ Surely You are not greater than our father Abraham, who died? The prophets died too; whom do You make Yourself out to be?” Jesus answered, “If I glorify Myself, My glory is nothing; it is My Father who glorifies Me, of whom you say, ‘He is our God’; and you have not come to know Him, but I know Him; and if I say that I do not know Him, I shall be a liar like you, but I do know Him, and keep His word. Your father Abraham rejoiced to see My day, and he saw it and was glad.” The Jews therefore said to Him, “You are not yet fifty years old, and have You seen Abraham?” Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, before Abraham was born, I AM.” - John 8:52-58

This proclamation shocked the Jews to the point here they were prepared to stone him to death for blasphemy.

Then Wallis tries to suggest that Jesus repudiated and mocked YHWH, starting with a mis-quoted passage from John 8, where Wallis tries to spin Jesus’ words to say that the Pharisees were children of YHWH and that YHWH was an evil being. An objective read of the chapter shows that wasn’t what Jesus was saying at all. He was telling the Pharisees that they’ve forgotten their heritage from Abraham and were serving the devil, thinking and claiming they were serving God/YHWH. The level of misdirection that Wallis uses in his twisting of this passage borders on Satanic.

 Wallis next tries to suggest that his words in Matt 7:9-10 (“What man among you, if his son asks him for bread, will give him a stone? Or if he asks for a fish, will give him a snake?) are making fun of the way God treated the Israelites in Exodus. He says that the Israelites were thirsty, and YHWH gave them a rock. No, Paul, He told Moses to strike a rock, and then water flowed forth, enough to feed the multitude and their animals. He tries to equate the passage in Numbers 21:4-9 with giving a child a snake instead of a fish. No, God sent the serpents to punish the people for speaking against him. More on this theme later.

Then he makes some strange point using 2 Kings 17, which discusses the behavior of the Israelites that ended in the Babylonian Exile, to suggest that the people of Israel were worshipping other gods from their past. He shows the passage, but it’s nothing like the passage in my New American Standard Bible, which is considered the gold standard for English translations. His is some sort of condensed version and mis-states a number of things, for example his version says they were following the patterns of their ancestors, where the proper translation clearly states they were following the example of the nations that surrounded them. But it suits his narrative to mis-state that as ancestors.

He follows this by asserting that they were remembering the way Judaism used to be, not what it became after Hezekiah and Josia removed ancient writings that referred to the "Paleo contact." This is pure science fiction, without a shred of supporting evidence. No texts suggest this, which Wallis conveniently writes off that these two kings destroyed all references in an effort to reform Judaism to a YHWH based monotheism.

He then returns to his original claim that YHWH was not the God of Jesus, saying "It took awhile for the idea to bed down that Jesus really rejected and repudiated YHWH and his laws." Yeah, Paul, because it never happened. No Christian with an unbroken line of apostolic succession believes this.

Then he tries to show that Jesus repudiated the Law of YHWH the times he said, "Moses said this, but I say this." Nice try, Paul, but anyone who knows the Gospels knows that Jesus isn't replacing Mosaic teaching with these, He's not teaching something different, He's enhancing them, reinforcing them, showing the spirit of the Law, calling people to do more than the law requires because they understand the spirit of the Law.

Then Wallis overstates the decision of the Council of Jerusalem, and completely misses the implications. He puts words into the mouths of the Apostles and infers intent in the decision making process that suits his conclusions, which have no merit in history or the written record.

He then tries to equate the history of Christianity with regard to wars, enslavement, misogyny, and violence with this link to what he calls "YHWHism".  This completely ignores the fact that these are symptoms of the Christian West after the Great Schism, and a result of the scholasticism and monarchism that's the hallmark of the Roman Catholic Church and its myriad derivative Protestant offshoots.

He belabors the point with comparing the punishment that David received for counting his armies to Jesus offering is the whole cosmic realm, claiming that YHWH is a micromanaging martinet and Jesus wants to give us the universe.  Except Wallis forgets that these two things are deeply connected:  You have to have faith.

Enough of directly refuting Wallis’ nonsense.  I’ll explain why the God of Jesus, YHWH, seems to our modern sensibilities to be so strange.  First of all, you have to take to heart the words of Isaiah:

“For My thoughts are not your thoughts,
and your ways are not My ways.”

“For as heaven is higher than earth,
so My ways are higher than your ways,
and My thoughts than your thoughts. “

             -Isaiah 55: 8-9.

Don’t try to understand why God does things, for you can no more understand it than a two year old can understand why adults do certain things.

To give you an idea of the world outside of ancient Judaism, we can look to the accounts of Herodotus and his story of Astyages and Harpagus.  Harpagus the general disobeyed his king Astyages, who a decade earlier ordered him to execute his own grandson, for whom his palace seers gave evil portent. In retaliation, Astyages acted as if he was relieved that the deed hadn’t been done, and offered to host a banquet of reconciliation.  At that banquet, he fed Harpagus the meat of his own son, whom he had butchered. This is one example of the casual barbarity that was common in the world of Abraham and Moses.  We have to be very careful, because we look at the world through the lens of a Judeo-Christian social ethos that’s so ingrained in us that we actually mistakenly believe it’s human nature. Monogamy, human rights, privacy, the value of human lives, these things are the exception in human history, not the rule, and the only reason we have them is because of the Abrahamic covenant and the Law of Moses.

When YHWH revealed himself to Moses and led the people of Israel out of Egypt, he performed many wondrous miracles, any one of which should have cemented the faith of the Israelites in Him.  But they repeatedly showed themselves to be faithless.  Shortly after leaving Egypt, Moses sent scouts into Canaan.  They all came back and all but Caleb and Joshua were dismayed.  They told Moses the cities were too big, the armies too strong, their soldiers were giants, and that they couldn’t be defeated.  Only Joshua and Caleb reported all these things, but with their faith said that through YHWH they could still take them. Moses chose caution.  YHWH saw they lacked the faith Him he required of His chosen people and condemned them to wander in the desert until everyone who had left Egypt was dead.  The New generation, who had never known Egyptian society or gods, who YHWH had fed with mana and quail all their lives, would take the Promised Land.

YHWH gave Moses the Law.  Very specific, precise instructions in nearly every aspect of life.  The purpose was to foster a new culture among the Israelites.  The penalties were severe, often capital, because the idea was that over the generations the idea of disobeying the law was so horrific that eventually the law would become second nature, that no one would even think of disobeying it, to the point where the Law would be considered human nature.

When Moses died, Joshua was to lead the invasion of Canaan, with the instruction to slaughter all of the Canaanites, even their livestock, and leave nothing. Harsh, but with a reason.  YHWH knew that to foster the culture he was trying to instill there could be no contamination with pagan outside influences.  The Israelites were to be completely insular, geographically, spiritually and culturally.

Joshua and the Israelites disobeyed.  Canaanites were spared, their livestock and temples weren’t razed to the ground.  Canaanite culture remained.  And the rest of the Old Testament is a repeating story of how that caused problems for the Israelites.  The culture of the strange religions and practices were like siren songs, leading the Israelites away from YHWH.  When they stayed faithful to YHWH’s law, they prospered.  When they strayed, they suffered. YHWH sent prophets to call them back to him, to warn them of the consequences of straying.  Stray they did, and suffer mightily they would.  Then they would repent and return to YHWH and prosper. It oscillated back and forth, to greater extremes each time, until the Scythians carried off ten of the tribes, followed by the Babylonians carrying off the remaining two tribes and destroying the Temple.

Fifty years as slaves in Babylon was a time of repentance and introspection.  Scribes and historians compiled the books of Chronicles and Kings.  Prophets instructed the people on what to do when they regained their freedom.  Cyrus the Great defeated the Babylonians and restored the Jews to their land, even offering to help rebuild the Temple.

The Jews never embraced foreign gods or cultures again.  They fought a partisan war against the armies of Alexander when the Greek armies occupied Israel. And at last the culture of morality that God tried to instill was a reality. The Israelites developed a reputation of being stiff necked people who would never bow to or accept the gods of their occupiers, whether they be Greek, Persian, Egyptian or Roman.  The harsh Mosaic Law had done its job.

But there was a problem.  The Law became second nature, but the Levite enforcers of the Law became abusive autocrats in their own right.  The Law was enforced to the letter, without regard to the sprit of the Law.  Meanwhile the philosophical culture of the Greeks infused Israeli society.  They never accepted Greek gods, but they learned of Greek science, mathematics, and philosophy.  Remember, the Greek Philosopher Plato had written a work named the Timaeus, which started with logical definitions of the physical, observable world, and then through a process of logical deduction arrived at a conclusion of a monotheistic God. The Greeks had a philosophy of logical conclusion that drove their ethos.  The Jews had a rigid Law that drove theirs.  The combination of the two mingled for three hundred years, making a fertile social bed for the catalyst that would merge the two:  Jesus Christ.

Christ – YHWH incarnate – came with the Mosaic Law in one hand and Greek philosophy in the other. Take note of His teachings:  He rarely if ever issued edicts or rules.  He would teach as a Socratic, offering scenarios that forced his disciples to think about the Law and how to apply it.  Sometimes they missed His point, and he would give them another perspective or insight and ask the question in a different way until they got it. These lessons, the successes and the failures are recorded in the Gospels. The need for the rigid Mosaic law was no more: the people’s ethos was so ingrained that it was their nature, thought to be inborn.  They needed now to learn how to think about the law.

But Jesus came for the Jews. He even overtly referred to gentiles as dogs (Matt15:26). The faith shown by the gentiles, though, was even greater than that of Israel, and he embraced it.  The Jewish powerful disavowed him, He was a threat to their position, causing him to declare that the stone the builders rejected has become the cornerstone (Mark 12:10). 

YHWH made a covenant with Abraham, that his descendants would be as numerous as the stars and the nations of the Earth will be blessed by them (Gen 26:4).  YHWH keeps his covenant, even though the children of Israel acted like the harlot, consorting with strange cultures and idols, YHWH never broke his promise. All of the nations and cultures of the Old Testament are gone, but Israel remains. Today look at the Nobel prizes, and the many scientific achievements and innovations coming from Israel.  Without Jewish scientists, we never would have unlocked the power of the atom. It’s no wonder that Satan sows discord among the nations about Israel, and has sought to exterminate them repeatedly.  Read the prophecies of Isaiah, Ezekial and Jeremiah. If you’re not on the side of Israel, you’re on the losing side, because YHWH, the god of Abraham, Moses and Jesus, will not break His word.

If you can understand how the arborist prunes the vie to get the greatest yield, you can start to see why YHWH seemed so bloodthirsty in a very bloodthirsty age. The vine never likes to be pruned, it hurts.  That’s a lesson for society and for our personal lives.